Scales

Below, you will find scales that were developed by my team and I. You are free to use them for personal purposes. For research purposes, you must cite the source of the scale (mostly journal article). You do not need my permission to use them in your research, as long as you cite the source.

Note: L2 = Second language; SDT = Self-determination theory; BPN = Basic psycholgical needs

L2 grit scale

Grit is defined as‘trait-level perseverance and passion for long-term goals’ (Duckworth & Quinn, 2009, p. 166). Grit consists of two key dimensions: an individual’s ability to sustain interest (consistency of interest, CI) and long-term persistence (perseverance of effort, PE) on tasks that require more than a few months to complete. The scale measures two constructs, CI and PE on a five Likert scale formate (strongly agree= 5 to strongly disagree = 1). Note that the items for Consistency of Interest are reverse-scored. Agreement with these statements indicates lower consistency of interest rather than higher consistency.

Citation: Alamer, A. (2021). Grit and language learning: construct validation of L2-Grit scale and its relation to later vocabulary knowledge. Educational Psychology, 41, 544-562. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2020.1867076

Perseverance of effort, PE

I work hard towards my language learning goals irrespective of how long they take to achieve.

Even when I can do something more fun, I give language learning tasks my best effort.

I complete my language learning tasks irrespective of how difficult they are.

I am committed to the investment of my best effort in language learning tasks.

Even if I am struggling to learn the language, I keep trying my best.

Once I set a language learning goal, I try to overcome any challenge that arises.

*Consistency of interest

*Note: items for Consistency of Interest are reverse-scored

I often set a language learning goal but later choose to pursue a different one.

New ideas and projects sometimes distract me from learning the language.

I become interested in new pursuits other than language learning every few months.

My interest in learning the second language changes every month.

I was obsessed with learning the language for a short period of time but lost interest eventually.

I have difficulty in maintaining my focus on language tasks that take a long time to achieve.

SDT-L2 scale

Motivation refers to “the reasons a language student endorses when learning a second language” (Alamer, 2024, p.2). Self-determination theory in second language (SDT-L2) scale measures the motivation for L2 learning.

Autonomous and controlled motivation are the two broad categories that describe why students engage in academic tasks. Autonomous motivation reflects engaging in learning out of personal interest or a sense of value, whereas controlled motivation reflects engaging due to internal or external pressure. Within these two overarching constructs, four specific subconstructs are commonly assessed in educational research.

• Intrinsic motivation — Students participate because the activity is inherently enjoyable or interesting.

• Identified regulation — Students engage because they personally value the activity and see its importance.

(Both represent autonomous motivation.)

• Introjected regulation — Students act to avoid guilt or to maintain self-worth, driven by internal pressure.

• External regulation — Students act to obtain rewards or avoid punishment, driven by external demands.

(Both represent controlled motivation.)

The SDT-L2 scale is a self-reported measure in a 5-point Likert-type response format. Each subscale of motivation consists of five items. Participants are asked to ponder the question “Why are you learning English?” and then indicate the extent to which they agreed with the statements that followed

Citation: Main citation: Alamer, A. (2022). Basic psychological needs, motivational orientations, effort, and vocabulary knowledge: A comprehensive model. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 44, 164-184. https://doi.org/10.1017/S027226312100005X

Additional citation: Alamer, A. (2021). Construct validation of self-determination theory in second language scale: The bifactor exploratory structural equation modeling approach. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 732016. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.732016

Definition of motivation: Alamer, A. (2024). Motivation and language learning. In the International Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics, 3rd Edition. Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-95504-1.00223-4

“Why are you learning English?”

Autonomous motivation

Intrinsic orientation

Because I enjoy language learning.

Because of the pleasure I get when hear and read in the second language.

For the satisfaction I feel when I use the second language.

For the enjoyment I experience when I achieve a new goal in the second language.

Because learning the second language is a fun activity in and of itself.

Identified orientation

Because language learning is important for my personal growth.

Because language learning can open new opportunities and possibilities for me.

For the value it holds in my self-development.

Because language learning is important for my current and future studies.

Because language learning allows me to read and hear materials that are necessary for my personal success.

Controlled motivation

Introjected orientation

Because I would feel guilty if I did not understand English.

Because I would feel ashamed if I am not successful in English learning like my friend(s)/family.

Because people around me (the teacher/peers/parents) expect me to learn English.

Because people around me (the teacher/peers/parents) would think I am a failure if I did not speak English.

Because I feel pressured by the people around me (the teacher/peers/parents) to learn English.

External orientation

Because I want to get a prestigious job that requires English proficiency.

Because I want to get better marks in the English course.

Because English is just a required course that I want to pass.

Because I do not want to fail the final exam in the English course.

Because there will be negative consequences if I fail to learn English.

BPN-L2 scale

SDT advocates the importance of BPN for sustained and enhanced autonomous motivation. SDT postulates that autonomy, competence, and relatedness are essential conditions for learners to thrive in their learning environment. Autonomy refers to the sense of control and freedom that individual develops when s/he engage in an activity. Competence refers to a state in which the learner feels effective, competent, and capable of successfully performing the target activities. Relatedness refers to connectedness with other people and the development of a sense of warmth with others.

The scale is designed to elicit self-reports. It consists of a total of 12 items in a 5-point Likert-type response format. Participants are asked to indicate to what extent they agreed or disagreed with each statement.

Citation:

Main citation: Alamer, A. (2022). Basic psychological needs, motivational orientations, effort, and vocabulary knowledge: A comprehensive model. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 44, 164-184. https://doi.org/10.1017/S027226312100005X

Autonomy

I am able to freely decide my own pace of language learning.

I am able to freely choose the tasks to be done while language learning.

My teacher allows my class to choose how we approach language learning.

My teacher let me freely practice language learning in the classroom.

Competence

I feel I am capable of language learning.

I can be a successful language learner.

I am competent enough to meet the challenges and tasks posed in language learning.

I feel a sense of accomplishment in my language classes.

Relatedness

People around me in the classroom (such as the teacher) are friendly and cordial with me.

People around me in the classroom (such as the teacher) care about my progress.

My English teacher is very understanding (puts him/herself in other people’s place) about students’ problems.

My classmates are willing to help and cooperate with me while learning the language.

BPNF-L2 scale

In some cases, the basic psycholgical needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness might be frustrated. The Basic Psychological Needs Frustration in Second Language (BPNF-L2) measures the frustration of the three needs.

It consists of a total of 12 items in a 5-point Likert-type response format. Participants are asked to indicate to what extent they agreed or disagreed with each statement.

Citation: Alamer, A., Morin, J. S. A., Alrabai, F., & Alharfi, A. (2023). Introducing the Basic Psychological Needs Frustration in Second Language Scale (BPNF-L2): Examining its factor structure and effect on L2 motivation and achievement. Acta Psychologica, 240. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2023.104021

Frustration of autonomy

I feel pushed to do the language tasks in certain ways.

I feel forced to follow decisions about the language exercises I should do.

I feel a lot of unwanted pressure in the language tasks.

I feel forced to do language exercises that I would not choose to do.

Frustration of competence

I feel like a failure when trying to do language tasks.

I feel useless when trying to do language tasks.

I feel incapable when trying to do language tasks.

I feel hopeless when trying to do language tasks.

Frustration of relatedness

I feel rejected by the language users around me in the class (e.g., peers and teachers).

I feel brushed aside by the language users around me in the class (e.g., peers and teachers).

I feel disliked by the language users around me in the class (e.g., peers and teachers).

I feel excluded by the language users around me in the class (e.g., peers and teachers).

L2 Passion scale

Passion according to Vallerand (2015) is defined as a strong inclination toward an activity that a person loves, highly values, and engages in regularly, and that becomes part of their identity. The Dualistic Model of Passion (DMP). DMP postulates the existence of two distinct types of passion, namely harmonious passion (HP) and obsessive passion (OP). Each of which leads to either positive or negative consequences.

The L2 Passion Scale uses two six-item subscales that assess HP and OP, similar to the original scale. The students responded to all the statements based on a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (Strongly

Disagree) to 5 (Strongly Agree).

Citation: Alamer, A., & Marsh, H. (2022). Exploratory structural equation modeling in second language research: An applied example using the dualistic model of passion. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 44, 1477 - 1500. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263121000863

Harmonious passion

Learning the language is in harmony with the other activities in my life.

The new things that I discover in the language allow me to appreciate it even more.

Learning the language reflects the qualities I like about myself.

Learning the language allows me to live a variety of experiences.

Learning the language is well-integrated in my life.

Learning the language is in harmony with other things that are part of me.

Obsessive passion

If I could, I would only do language learning.

I have almost an obsessive feeling for language learning.

Language learning is the only thing that really turns me on.

I have difficulties controlling my urge for language learning.

Language learning is so exciting that I sometimes lose control over it.

I have the impression that language learning controls me.

Autonomous single language interest (ASLI)

Alamer (2022) introduced the Autonomous single language interest (ASLI) concept. It postulates that second language (L2) students who have one autonomously oriented goal for studying the L2 during their learning setting (e.g., during university study) are likely to make greater L2 achievements than those with low ASLI.

To measure ASLI, the user needs to measure two variables variables as the two constitute ASLI.

1. Single language interest (SLI). Three items are used in a dichotomous true of me / not true of me format to avoid middle answers that can make it difficult to judge having SLI.

2. Autonomous motivation. Two item from intrinsic motivation and two items from identified motivation (total 4 items) are taken from the SDT-L2 scale mentioned earlier. They are based on a 5-point Likert scale.

After that, the SLI scores are combined with autonomous motivation scores in the following way:

Procedures: As SLI is the central component of ASLI it was the rst check to determine whether a participant can be candidate as having ASLI. In this way, if a participant answers two (out of the three) items with‘true of me’ then s/he is a candidate and then can be assessed for his/her autonomous motivation; if, for example, answered two items with ‘not true of me’ then s/he is not a candidate and then got a mark of zero. Candidate participants (who participated with ‘true of me’ to at least two items of SLI) receives one mark.

As autonomous motivation was measured by four items on a 5-point Likert scale, a participant receives one mark for responding‘agree’ and two marks for responding‘strongly agree’ in each of the four items. See Table 1 below for explanation.

Citation:
Main citation: Alamer, A. (2022). Having a single language interest autonomously predicts L2 achievement: Addressing the predictive validity of L2 grit. System, 108, 102850. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2022.102850

Additional citation: Alamer, A., & Almaghlouth, S. (2024). Autonomous single language interest predicts vocabulary achievement: The latent growth curve model approach. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching. https://doi.org/10.1515/iral-2024-0016

SLI (3 items) True of me / Not true of me format

Mastering the L2 is the only long-term interest I have during my [university studies].

Learning the L2 is the only long-term project I focused on during my [university studies].

I am not involved in any long-term goals/projects during my [university studies] except for achieving language mastery.

Autonomous motivation (4 items) based on a 5-point Likert scale.

Why are you learning English?

Because I enjoy language learning.

Because of the pleasure I get when hear and read in the second language.

Because language learning is important for my personal growth.

Because language learning can open new opportunities and possibilities for me.

How to Score ASLI?

Google Sites

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